Modern Indian History Timeline: Chronology of British Colonialism (1765-1947)

Colonialism in Modern Indian History

Colonialism is a political system in which two distinct political entities are interconnected. It is based on economic interests where one entity exploits while the other is nourished. This framework defined Britain’s relationship with India throughout the modern Indian history timeline.

Economic Policies of British in India: R.P Dutt’s Model

R.P. Dutt, a Marxist historian, wrote the economic history of India. Since colonialism is based on economic interests, the political or military events of a period are influenced by the British economic interests of that time. R.P. Dutt divided the Indian colonial period into three stages based on economic interests:

Stage I: Mercantile Phase (1765 – 1813)

This first stage begins with the establishment of British rule in India. EIC (East India Company) was a trading organization that traded goods from India to Britain. During this stage, EIC’s main objective was to establish a monopoly and direct plunder. Therefore, wars were fought solely for these interests. During this period, the British made no changes to the Indian administrative system.

“Indians should be governed by their own customs and traditions” – Warren Hastings

Colonial objectives during this phase included:

• Eliminate rival European powers
• Engage in conflicts with local Indian rulers only when trade interests were affected

Stage II: Industrial Capitalism (1813 – 1858)

In 1813, the British government passed the Charter Act, ending EIC’s monopoly in India, except for trade in tea and with China. In this changing scenario, EIC’s economic interests could be ensured only through direct political control over the maximum regions. The Industrial Revolution in Europe changed EIC’s trade interests. The supply of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods became priorities over direct trade. Direct political control also facilitated this.

Key developments:

• Britishers created new Administrative structures in India (Judiciary, Administrative structure etc.)
• Communication and transport was developed (Rail, Telegraph, Post)

The creation of new markets for British goods in India required significant changes in Indian society. It was necessary to create black-skinned Englishmen through:

• Development of new education policy
• Social reforms

Outcomes of the Second Stage:

• British expansionist policies made many Indian rulers their enemies
• British social reforms and education policies instilled fear in Indians of losing their religion and civilization
• Result: The 1857 revolt nearly expelled the British from India

Stage III: Financial Capitalism (1858 – 1947)

The 1857 revolt woke the British from their slumber. Immediate changes to old policies were deemed necessary. Changes (Government of India Act 1858):

• EIC was abolished, and the administration was directly transferred to the Crown
• The policy of annexation was halted
• Social reforms were minimal
• The Government of India Act 1858 was introduced for good governance in India

During this period, British capitalists’ investments in India were secured. Limited, unbalanced industrial development occurred in India, including the development of railways, tea plantations, jute mills, and coal mines. However, this industrial growth was still focused on maintaining dependency on Britain.

British Political Policies in India

Tools of Conquest

The British employed two instruments for the conquest of India: war and treaties. In the context of war, their diplomacy proved more effective than their direct battles. Treaties were essentially a part of the British war strategy. Initial treaties were merely a prelude to the next war. The cycle of war and initial treaties continued until the final treaty was concluded. The final treaties aimed to establish British Paramountcy in India.

Evolution of Political Strategies

During the colonial period, the political and military policies adopted by the British in India display a pattern that seems to relate to R.P. Dutt’s economic classification. The four phases are:

Phase 1: Effort for Equality with Indian States (Before 1765)

During this phase, the EIC (East India Company) was merely a trader trying to establish equality with Indian states. War was the most favorable instrument during this period.

Phase 2: Policy of Ring Fence (1765 – 1813)

This policy is also known as the Policy of Buffer States. During this period, the British rule in India faced security challenges: internal threats (Marathas, Mysore, etc.) and external threats (invasions from Afghanistan and other regions). The British policy during this period was shaped by these security challenges.

The Policy of Ring Fence involved creating a friendly buffer zone around strategically important areas for security purposes. For instance, the Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh and Warren Hastings’ policies during the Maratha and Mysore wars reflect this. After establishing themselves in Bengal, the British feared invasions from Afghanistan and the Marathas, so keeping Awadh in a system similar to a subsidiary alliance helped secure Bengal.

Britishers employed the tool of Subsidiary Alliance. States that accepted the Subsidiary Alliance had a British officer, known as a Resident, appointed at their court. During the Policy of Buffer States, this Resident did not interfere in the internal matters of the state and acted as a liaison between the company and the princely state.

Phase 3: Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813 – 1858)

During this period, the British Empire in India expanded rapidly. The economic backdrop of this period highlights this new political system. The relationship between the British and Indian states was based on subordinate cooperation. The principle of British paramountcy began to be established.

Under this policy, the native states were free in their internal affairs but had to cede their external sovereignty to the British. British employed the tool of ‘Doctrine of Lapse’, allowing them to take over a native kingdom if the throne lacks a blood heir. However, during the Policy of Subordinate Isolation, the Resident’s influence in internal matters increased.

Charter Act of 1833: This act ended all commercial activities of the EIC and established it as a purely administrative entity.

“Wherever and whenever possible, native states should be incorporated into the company.” — Court of Director (1834)

Phase 4: Policy of Subordinate Union (1858 – 1935)

Government of India Act: This act was introduced as a result of the 1857 uprising. The administration of India shifted indirectly under the British Crown, replacing the EIC. To pacify the agitated people, this act was termed as the first Government of India Act. It was introduced as act for good governance.

The British ceased their policy of annexation and promised not to annex new territories. By this period, British paramountcy was fully established. To mitigate the adverse effects of the Policy of Subordinate Isolation, the Policy of Subordinate Union was established.

Subordinate Union comprised:

• British-controlled territories (directly administered)
• Native princely states (connected through a subordinate treaty)

Phases & Chronology of Modern Indian History Notes (PDF Download)

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Best Books for Modern Indian History

• India’s Struggle for Independence by Bipan Chandra
• The Economic History of India by R.P. Dutt (Original Source)
• Modern Indian History by Spectrum